The Reformation Era and the Reshaping of European Christianity
Here is something that my father wrote on the reformation and its consequences. There has been some editing, mainly for greater objectivity, the addition of sections and minor tweaks to details. Otherwise, it is close to what he had created. The piece is included here for its Irish context later on in the narrative.
Early Church and Crusades (1095-1285)
In 1095, Pope Urban II gathered the Crusaders with the aim of defending Rome and controlling the aggressive actions of Muslims against Catholic pilgrims visiting Rome and its beliefs. The Crusaders consisted of Norman, Italian, and French armies who launched an offensive and successfully defeated the Muslims. At the same time, the Eastern Byzantine church, which had separated from Rome, was experiencing a fierce attack in Asia Minor from the Turks.
In Ireland, the repeated conflicts between local clans were not the only difficulties endured by the Irish populace. There were two other foreign invaders whose violent acts were aimed at eradicating Irish identity and taking full control of the country. The Normans used their forces without restraint, but the worst were the Danes, known as Vikings because they were mainly pirates from several Scandinavian countries and were wholly anti-Christian.
Amid their violent and brutal nature, some of the Irish chieftains sought their assistance to bolster their weaker armies to overcome their stronger neighbouring adversaries. The limited alliance between native chieftains and foreigners caused further hostility and bloodshed among the locals. The devout Catholic people could not accept their churches being looted and burned, their numerous monasteries being destroyed, their sacred items stolen, and their monks and priests being killed.
Despite all this upheaval, the people remained firm in their Catholic faith and allegiance to the teachings of the Pope. Yet, during this period, there emerged vast groups of heresy and anti-papal sentiments throughout Europe, along with a cry from Christians for reform within the Catholic Church.
The Western Schism and Papal Crisis (1285-1378)
The rise of King Philip to the French throne in 1285 also brought his strong political influence, which he tried to exert over the Papacy. He has been described as an amoral cunning tyrant, whose primary goal was to build a powerful French nation. A conflict arose between the Pope and King Philip over the Pope’s imposition of taxes. The King, in desperate need of money, saw the wealth accumulated by the church as a tempting target. Philip was determined to access the Papal resources, enacting a law forbidding the payment of money by French people to Rome. This tension escalated when the King had the defiant Bishop of Pamiers arrested and charged with several crimes of clerical misconduct and Papal arrogance.
King Philip then convened his council, including several high-ranking clergy, to accuse the Pope of materialism, a lack of faith in the immortality of the soul, disbelief in transubstantiation, neglecting fasting, coercing priests to reveal confessional secrets, practising various forms of sexual misconduct, and being a notorious simonist with an ambition to destroy France.
Realising the king’s intention to destroy him, the Pope prepared a Bull that would excommunicate the king and his subjects, thus releasing them from their obligations to Rome. Philip, employing his cunning and vengeful tactics, enlisted his henchman and planned to bring the Pope to France as the best way to have him dismissed.
Under the cover of darkness on September 3, 1303, an army of three hundred cavalry and a thousand foot-soldiers entered the Papal town. A day of intense fighting ensued. In the evening, Nogaret, the commander of the King’s army, found the Pope seated on his throne with a crucifix in his hand. The local populace rallied to his defence, and Nogaret did not succeed in capturing the Pope. However, the ordeal took its toll on the eighty-five-year-old Pontiff, who died shortly after.
This period became known as the Great Schism, during which Philip exerted influence over succeeding Popes. The next Pope elected did not live to be consecrated. He was succeeded by a French Bishop named Clement V, who proved unable to challenge the intrigue and arrogance of a king who, under duress, had the Pope condemn the order of Knights Templars for political reasons and because he owed large sums to their bank. This was viewed by the public as a disgraceful defeat for the Papacy.
In 1305, Philip secured another victory when the Pope moved his residence from Rome to Avignon, despite Rome being the place where the first pope, Peter, established his base. Avignon was to be the residence of seven Popes from 1378, all of whom fell victim to the King’s interests and schemes. During this time, Italy was constantly at war while Christianity fought for survival.
Pope Clement was succeeded by Pope John XXII in 1316, who faced several problems. Firstly, he had to address the poor financial state from Clement’s extravagances, compounded by Philip’s cunning. He needed to address heresy, organise new crusades, and propagate the faith. His efforts were hindered by a deadly plague known as the Black Death, which struck in 1348, recurred every ten years, and reduced Europe’s population to an all-time low. It spread rapidly and left institutions like monasteries and convents nearly deserted.
On top of these plagues, the Avignon Popes were forced to introduce systems of taxation to address the church’s troubled finances, resulting in large fees for bishops, monasteries, and priests. The measure’s unpopularity led to noncompliance from many. In 1328, a papal meeting excommunicated as many as five archbishops, thirty bishops, and forty-six abbots for non-payment of these taxes. England was also heavily taxed, causing internal unrest.
Pre-Reformation Church Issues (1378-1517)
In 1370, Gregory XI became Pope and soon recognised the need for the church to be governed from Rome. With St Catherine of Siena’s encouragement, he returned to Rome but passed away on 27 March 1378. The forty-year Great Schism persisted, and a Council was convened to consider the Pope’s supremacy, which resulted in three Popes vying for control of the church.
This situation cast a shadow over the people of Rome, whose faith in the church weakened and became unpredictable. After Gregory’s death, the Romans feared the appointment of another French Pope. When the Cardinals gathered in Rome to elect a new Pope, the Romans warned the French Cardinals that they would be torn to pieces if they did not choose an Italian. The meeting quickly elected Prignano, a dependable vice chancellor of the curia, who took the name Urban VI but later underwent a drastic change of character, acting as a despotic leader and targeting church leaders for their betrayal, luxury, and simony. This brought the church to new lows, and the schism reached a more severe level.
When the Cardinals met again, they concluded that the new Pope’s behavioural change was due to mental illness, likely caused by the pressures of the Papacy. They issued an elaborate encyclical declaring Prignano’s election invalid, denouncing him as anti-Christ, a demon, apostate, and tyrant. They gained support from three Italian cardinals and Queen Joan of Naples before electing Robert of Geneva as the new pope, who took the name Clement VII, with French backing.
Urban launched a crusade against Clement, and England invaded France because of its support for Clement. The military actions of both Popes severely depleted papal finances, leading to harsh measures to extract money from ordinary people, further damaging the church’s popularity. Urban also punished cardinals suspected of campaigning against him, leading to five deaths.
Urban died in Rome in June 1389, and Clement VII died in 1394. He was succeeded at Avignon by Benedict XIII, who swore to resign his office upon election to resolve the schism but refused to do so, creating a conflict between the Pope of Avignon and the French people. They laid siege on his palace unsuccessfully. Ultimately, France acceded to his rule. Pope Gregory XII’s appointment brought no significant change. Avignon Popes refused to resign and continued to cause division until a new method of electing a Pope was adopted by the council on November 11, 1417, where six delegates from each nation joined with cardinals to choose and elect a new pope. This council was preceded by a large procession of clergy and laity chanting hymns for peace and unity.
This display prompted the council to elect Oddo Colonna, a prelate renowned for his holiness, wisdom, and moderation. His efforts to unite the Western church succeeded in ending the Great Schism, although the necessary task of reforming the church remained. Upon returning to Rome, he found it devastated from years of battles. Pope Martin wasted no time in organising teams to repair bridges and walls and restore damaged churches. He aimed, unsuccessfully, to bring the monarchy under a framework of moderate conciliarism for reform.
Martin was followed by Eugene IV, a holy, learned, but strict man lacking gentleness and tact. He soon found reason to distrust the newly formed council at Basel. Eugene, unable to attend the Basel council, received negative reports about its circumstances and conduct, as well as the deterioration issues needing reform in Germany. Conflict ensued between the Pope and the council, leading to ongoing disputes.
Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation (1483-1546)
In 1483, a boy named Martin was born in Eisleben, Germany, to Hans and Margarette Luther, simple peasants who practised traditional Christian religion. Martin was remarkably intelligent, becoming proficient not only in German but also in other languages. He excelled in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek and attended Erfurt, Germany’s most prestigious university, where he earned a master of arts degree in 1505.
Subsequently, he joined the Augustinian order’s monastery, initially struggling to adapt to the strict life of prayer, silence, meditation, and frequent fasting. Despite this, he gained admiration from his superiors for his devout dedication to duty, study, and God. After completing his theological studies, he was ordained as a priest on April 4, 1507. Following this, he was tasked by his superior to continue his theological studies, during which he experienced profound spiritual devotion and peace.
However, delving deeper into theology led him to bouts of depression, resulting in negative and distressing emotions. Echoing Jesus’ lamentation, “My God, My God, why have you forsaken me,” Luther often expressed his misery and hatred of God. He questioned, “How could I love one who is so avenging that he punishes poor sinners?” To manage these bouts, he engaged in repeated prayer, fasting, and daily confession. Later, he openly confessed that his sickness stemmed from the abstract theological concepts he studied.
A visit to Rome to observe the situation only strengthened his anti-Roman sentiments, leading him back to Wittenberg, where he secured a professorship in biblical theology, a post he held for life. This appointment opened a new world for him. He overcame his depression and decided to explore St Paul’s belief: “It is not through our good deeds we are saved but through God’s unfathomable mercy and boundless generosity, who justifies us despite our sins.” This doctrine of justification by faith instilled a new confidence in the young Augustinian monk, replacing his depression and despair. He now felt assurance of salvation through true faith.
He then became increasingly convinced that the Roman Catholic Church’s promotion of indulgences was contrary to theology, and that it was a betrayal of the Gospel of Jesus Christ to teach that entry to heaven could be purchased by good deeds, including the buying of indulgences. Luther condemned those involved in the practice, decrying the tactics that suggested entry into heaven and release of souls from purgatory could be obtained only by buying indulgences.
Luther’s anger intensified when he discovered the funds from the sale of indulgences, along with other donations, were used for rebuilding St Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Further fuelling Luther’s fire, a Dominican preacher named Johann Tetzel declared in sermons: “Drop a few coins into the box, and you can rescue the souls of your friends and relations from purgatory.” As well as lecturing at the university, Luther served as parish priest in his hometown, where he learned that Tetzel was aggressively pushing indulgences, making penitents feel they were being given licence to sin. In response, he sent a copy of his thesis to the bishop with responsibility for Tetzel’s appointment.
When they did not respond, Luther is said to have posted a copy of his ninety-five theses in Latin on the door of the church at Wittenberg. The Archbishop of Mainz became concerned about his income loss from Luther’s criticism of the indulgence campaign and reported Luther to Rome. Pope Leo X, with little interest in theological matters and more concern with Italian political issues, dismissed the complaint about Luther as another isolated skirmish by an overzealous Augustinian monk.
Luther invited Tetzel and his scholars for debate on indulgences without the aim of completely condemning them. In the debate, Luther argued that the pope had no power over souls in purgatory nor control over the treasures of Christ and the saints. He clarified he spoke as a faithful Catholic, not intending for his theses to be revolutionary but to contribute to the much-needed church reform. Tetzel ridiculed and scorned Luther’s views, insisting he accept the entire system of indulgences or face the stake as a heretic.
John Calvin and the Rise of Calvinism (1509-1564)
The most renowned proponent and supporter of Protestantism in Europe was John Calvin, born in Noyon, France, on July 10, 1509. Early in life, he demonstrated intellectual potential, receiving financial church support to study theology for the priesthood in Paris. Later, he switched to studying law and languages at Orléans and Bourges Universities, where his spirituality led to conversion to Lutheranism.
Upon being asked to explain his religious shift, he provided a detailed response. Firstly, the existing system failed to provide him peace, leaving him in terror for his soul. Secondly, he found great comfort in the doctrine of the sufficiency of Christ’s work of satisfaction. Thirdly, he believed the reformers’ aim to correct church abuses was not schismatic, and lastly, he viewed the Papacy as unwarranted by Scripture, a tyranny based on hollow human claims.
Calvin successfully spread his newfound faith in France, leading to trouble with Catholic King Francis I. In October 1534, overzealous Protestants in Paris posted posters rejecting the Mass, resulting in serious hardship for Calvin. Authorities responded violently against the Protestants, deemed heretics, executing them without mercy. Realising his Parisian presence was untenable, Calvin fled to Basel, where he composed his first Latin book, “The Institutes of the Christian Religion,” a document of Protestant ecclesiastical doctrine, elevating him to prominence among Protestant leaders. Buoyed by its success, Calvin expanded and translated it into French. Upon publication, it left a historical impact on the Protestant movement.
Calvin later moved to Geneva and met active Reformer Guillaume Farel. Together, their excellent preaching and debating skills enabled them to expel the Catholic bishop and abolish the Mass. They aimed to establish a disciplined and regulated church, drafting rules for offering the Lord’s Supper, requiring citizens to declare allegiance to either the Pope or Jesus Christ.
Calvin and his supporters enforced a strict law whereby non-conforming natives faced excommunication. This perceived move towards a dominating, independent church power met resistance from the Genevese and their magistrates, leading to Calvin, Farel, and supporters’ banishment.
Calvin was invited to Strasbourg by Martin Bucer, an ex-Dominican priest and Lutheran preacher, continuing his work there. He revised and published “The Institutes of the Christian Religion” with Biblical Commentaries on the New and Old Testaments. Another of Emperor Charles V’s efforts to heal the schism, a Regensburg meeting, attended by Calvin failed. Calvin married Idelette de Bure, a convert’s widow, in 1540. Their one son passed away shortly after birth.
Geneva was fractious and divided over the issues prompting Calvin’s departure. Many supporters longed for his return, seeing him as the sole solution for church reform. With strong ambition to convert every citizen into a disciplined and reformed community, shortly after returning on September 13, 1541, he presented the “Ecclesiastical Ordinances” to Geneva’s general council, officially adopting it. In time, it and the “Institutes” became foundational for churches adopting Calvinism. His document’s formulation drew directly from the New Testament. Noncompliance incurred excommunication as a penalty.
Geneva, historically notorious for prostitution, stamped it out by law, with the death penalty for proven adultery, leading to numerous executions. This new way of life under Calvin angered many who saw him as a dictator, disagreeing with his interpretation of God’s Word. A critic, Jacques Gruet, openly contested Calvin, leading to his arrest, conviction of blasphemy, and execution. Another victim, Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician and anti-Trinitarian fleeing the Catholic Inquisition, arrived in Geneva, clashing with Calvin’s plans; he was arrested, tried for heresy, and burned at the stake.
Calvin’s formidable achievement was establishing a seminary in Geneva in 1559 for training ministry students. As anticipated, it succeeded, attracting Lutheran and Protestant students from across Europe under Calvin’s guidance, esteemed as Protestantism’s leading theological mind. Although he preached Scripture’s sufficiency for salvation, he starkly disagreed with Luther’s theology on the Lord’s Supper, Scripture’s canon, predestination, church doctrine, Christology, and sacraments. Critics think Calvin took “logical consistency to extremes in elaborating his synthesis of Christian doctrine.”
A significant charge against Rome was its portrayal of God. He claimed God’s knowledge was found in Scripture, read with reverence, faith, and love.
The English Reformation (1533-1558)
During this time, Calvinism slowly spread to England, staunchly Catholic, including its monarch, King Henry VIII, who despite conflict with the Pope over divorce from Catherine and his personal indulgences, sought to keep England Catholic.
Initially enraged by Luther’s critique of the church, the King proclaimed his loyalty to Jesus in the Eucharist and devotion to Mary. Despite being King, he was Henry VII’s second son. At his birth, there was significant “lineage succession” concern, notably among nobility, monarchy, gentry, and high society. Betrothal practices ensured lineage preservation, with children from noble families preselected and raised together for eventual marriage.
King Henry VII, a cunning, avaricious figure with two sons, sought an advantageous Spanish alliance, enhancing prestige, wealth, and military strength. Successful in his machinations, he viewed Spanish princess Catherine as a trump card. With a deceased brother unable to ascend and sister Joan the eldest, Catherine’s lineage secured succession to the Spanish throne. Catherine was introduced to the English court at fourteen to be betrothed to ailing Prince Arthur, who died within a year of their marriage, paving the way for Henry’s marriage to Catherine. Notably, royalty betrothal practices were condemned by Canon Law. Catherine fell in love with Henry and remarried, becoming a “second-hand bride.” Henry VII died in 1509, when Henry VIII promptly ascended.
Principal royal marriage aims included securing a male heir for succession. Henry and Catherine’s firstborn, a girl named Mary, led Henry to loudly criticise Catherine for not providing a male heir. At the time, royal marriages were not founded on love but often arranged for political alliances and stability among European nations. Catherine bore four more children, dying at or shortly after birth, leading Henry to desert Catherine.
Henry, known for a licentious lifestyle, had mistresses Mary Boleyn and Elizabeth Blount. Mary’s sister, Anne, regularly attended court, drawing Henry’s attention, who proposed that she became his mistress, driving his infatuation-led ambitions to make her Queen. Anne, resolute and aware of Henry’s waning interest in his wife, refused to be his mistress, only consort.
This created a complex problem for Henry, openly deliberating with chief spiritual advisor Cardinal Wolsey on divorcing Catherine. The Cardinal requested Papal divorce consent, denied as Canon breach. Enraged at the Pope’s refusal, Henry sacked and imprisoned Wolsey, who died pre-trial for allegedly misleading the King, saving him from execution like earlier adversaries. Arguments for divorce failed; Rome’s refusal to sanction being bolstered by Catherine’s refusal to forfeit her throne rights, compelling furious opposition from Spanish authorities.
Outraged, Henry dismissed the Pope as leader of the Church of England, appointing a new advisory team, including Chancellor Sir Thomas More, Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer, and the devious Thomas Cromwell, Chancellor of the Exchequer. In January 1533, Cranmer married Henry and Anne Boleyn, later nullifying Henry’s marriage to Catherine to declare England’s first divorce. Mary, their daughter, was deemed illegitimate, losing her succession right.
Henry faced further challenges following Thomas More’s refusal to endorse royal supremacy, leading to beheading in 1535, including John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, for refusing to recognise the King’s supremacy. This provoked hostility towards the British Monarchy, especially Rome. The Pope excommunicated Henry in July 1533, intensifying Henry’s anguish when Anne bore daughter Elizabeth instead of a male heir, anticipated by Henry.
A child born to a maid, fathered by Henry, being illegitimate, could not succeed the throne; the court arranged the mother’s marriage to a court employee. In 1535, Cromwell, advancing Protestantism with Henry’s consent, dissolved monasteries and convents, confiscating property and valuables. While less support joined the new faith, nine thousand monks and nuns faced destitution or execution.
Catherine of Aragon, in a forgiving, sincere gesture, penned a final letter to Henry, seeking a final meeting six years after separating, but without a response. In January 1536, as Holy Mass was conducted in her room, she sought support from her Chaplain and Confessor before leaving the world. Her burial at Peterborough Cathedral was marked by a plain, black stone slab without inscription, reflecting a difficult journey through life.
Failing to bear a son after three years, Anne met similar rejection as Catherine but fought for her rights with her strong-willed, ambitious nature. Henry, however, had her charged with adultery and witchcraft, resulting in her execution by beheading, ensuring the finest swordsman for the deed.
In 1536, Henry married Jane Seymour, bearing a son in 1537, though frail and delicate. His ongoing illness may have partly stemmed from Henry’s syphilis, acquired from his libertine lifestyle, eventually leading to his untimely death. Henry’s later marriages were brief and troubled: he married Anne of Cleves in 1540 but had it annulled that same year. He then married Catherine Howard, but their marriage was annulled in 1541, and she was executed for adultery in 1542. His final marriage was to Catherine Parr in 1543, who bore no children but outlived him until his death in 1547.
Henry VIII was succeeded by son Edward VII. His daughter with Catherine, known as Mary Tudor, ardently advocated for Catholicism’s restoration, but Mary’s death in 1558 during Holy Mass hindered full reconciliation, starkly different from her mother’s passing. She was followed by stepsister Elizabeth, Henry and Anne Boleyn’s daughter, more politically focused than religious, ultimately using her influence to establish Protestantism in the country.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation (1545-1563)
By the fifteenth century, the Catholic Church had endured extensive trials and tribulations. Its survival might be attributed to divine guidance. A period of renewal began, unsurprisingly, in Italy, where the church started with the founding of the “Oratory of Divine Love in Genoa” in 1497. Dedicated to personal spiritual renewal through regular religious devotions and charitable works.
From this Oratory emerged the Theatines. Later, Pope Paul IV, alongside Gian Carafa and Gaetano de Thiene, became convinced reform had to commence with parish clergy, organising secular priests into communities, observing poverty, chastity, obedience, and high levels of clerical spirituality. A long-anticipated Roman Church reform seemed underway.
The Barnabites order, founded in Venice by Anthony Zaccaria, Bartolomeo Ferrari, and Giacomo Morigia, sprang to life, yet, most successful were the Jesuits, recruited by St. Ignatius Loyola in Paris. In Italy, born in 1528, the Capuchins restored the Franciscan order back to its original ideals. The Irish Catholic Church significantly contributed to revitalising the Roman Church with numerous missionaries working abroad.
Among the Italian church’s key spiritual revival figures was Gian Matteo Giberti, an Oratory of Divine Love member and bishop of Verona, dedicated to restoring faith among his flock. His work, including preaching, visitation, especially monastic communities, liturgy, and social apostolate, highlighted by inspiring other Bishops with his efforts.
Despite progress, longstanding doctrinal challenges, financial abuses, widespread Protestant opposition, and organisational breakdown persisted. The reformation delayed church councils because of Papal fears of conciliarism renewal, Curial resistance, hostile German princes, and rival political dynamics between France and Spain.
However, Pope Paul III convened a Council meeting in Trent, Italy, on December 13, 1545, attended by thirty bishops, unaware of its future impact on the church. The Council lasted eighteen years, with intermittent breaks for research and dialogue.
Session one ended with Charles V proposing dialogue between Catholics and Protestants in hope of unity. Between sessions two and three, political interests, indifferent to religious matters, delayed proceedings. Substantial progress was made during reform-minded Pope Paul IV’s reign, succeeded in 1565 by Pope Pius IV, who resumed the third and final session.
Pope Pius IV, a diplomatic figure, tackled doctrinal issues raised by Luther, firmly denying them, and confirming definite Catholic-Protestant theological conflict. The council affirmed Scripture and Tradition as faith determinants, with justification, viewed by Luther as dispute’s focal point, seeing no compromise. The Bishops refuted total human corruption from original sin, asserting justification needed faith, hope, and charity equally. Furthermore, charity had to manifest in good works through human cooperation with God’s grace.
In opposition to Luther’s teachings, the Bishops firmly maintained several core Catholic doctrines: they defended the divine validity of all seven sacraments, upheld the church’s hierarchical structure, affirmed the divine institution of the priesthood, preserved the traditional teaching of transubstantiation, and reaffirmed the sacrificial nature of the Mass. While the Council’s doctrinal definitions sparked controversy among Catholics, its spirit was conservative, allowing minimal liberal expression. Significant consideration focused on founding seminaries for priest training; bishops oversaw strictly traditional, humanist-writings-ignored training. Strong emphasis was placed on papal supremacy, with all Council decisions and decrees submitted to the Pope for approval. Papal appointee bishops were granted absolute diocesan control. The rule of absolute episcopal authority seemingly imposed an isolated, strict, authoritarian church culture, resulting in potential negative laity reactions. The Council effectively addressed bizarre, scandalous Mass offerings of some congregations.
Significantly, the Jesuits formed, led by the “little soldier,” Ignatius Loyola. Under his leadership, the Society of Jesus or Jesuits arose, pledging chastity, obedience, and poverty, undertaking the mammoth task of aiding Papal reform of the Catholic Church for subsequent centuries. The order advanced remarkably in Catholic countries, particularly Germany and Poland, reintroducing papal recognition. By Ignatius’ death in 1556, the order’s 936 members across Europe worked jointly through prayer, teaching, preaching, attending the sick, hearing confessions, and advancing Catholic reform.
Following Ignatius’s death, Peter Canisius succeeded, founding colleges in Augsburg, Munich, and Innsbruck, publishing the Canisius catechism. Despite its ecumenical emphasis sparking negative controversy, many bishops made progress in reforming the church, guided by Trent’s councils; Charles Borromeo, Milan’s bishop from 1565 to 1584, excelled.
Trent’s success sparked the Tridentine Reformation, which introduced a new form of Catholic spirituality. People pursued spiritual perfection through a balanced approach that combined active self-control, the pursuit of virtue, engagement in merciful and charitable works, and the practice of meditative mental prayer. Inspiring figures like Loyola, Lorenzo Scupoli, Francis de Sales, Vincent de Paul, and Pierre de Bérulle influenced this fresh approach. New emphasis lay on the Eucharist and sacraments, with frequent confession and weekly Holy Communion encouraged.
Spirituality flourished under several exceptional leaders during this period. Philip Neri founded the Oratory Congregation in Rome, focusing on pastoral and spiritual renewal through his priests’ school. Francis de Sales established the Carmelites and Salesians, which later expanded under Don Bosco to provide global youth education. Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross emerged as fearless Carmelite reformers, while Jane de Chantal founded the Visitation Sisters order in 1641. Louise de Marillac made her mark by establishing the Sisters of Charity in 1633, an order dedicated to care for the sick and poor.
Post-Trent council survival necessitated significant intellectual and theological focus. The Jesuits exerted influence, founding seminaries in Rome, Salamanca, Paris, and Louvain, led by Robert Bellarmine, professor of theology at the Gregorian University in Rome, staunch Catholic traditionalism defender despite Protestant opposition.
The Irish Experience (1535-1586)
In Ireland, societal divisions—native Irish, Anglo-Irish settlers, and new English Protestant settlers, including land-rewarded landlords for supporting Protestantism—led to widespread political, racial, and spiritual confusion, disruption, and anger.
The English-controlled Irish Parliament declared King Henry VIII the Supreme Head of the Church, renouncing Rome allegiance. This bid met Irish rejection and opposition, confirmed by Parliament in 1535. In July, the Archbishopric of Dublin vacancy led Henry, assuming Irish church authority, to appoint George Brown as Archbishop, an ex-English Augustinian Provincial he deemed fit to spiritually control the Irish church.
Brown commenced enthusiastically yet faced steadfast opposition. He reported to the King that the Pope’s “usurped power” was deeply-rooted among Irish inhabitants. Calling Parliament seemed the most effective means of achieving the King’s desires. When convened in 1536, Henry was declared church head and future Rome communications treacherous.
In 1538, Lord Grey, the viceroy, reached Limerick for a corporation meeting, where compliance to the Statute of Supremacy denouncing the “usurped power” of the Pope was sworn. John Quin, a learned Dominican friar from Kilmallock monastery, was appointed Bishop of Limerick and ordered his clergy to swear the identical oath, indicating sympathy for the King’s religious innovations. Many steadfast priests refused and faced victimisation, forcing them to hide to survive and serve their people.
Personal motives led Bishop Quin to reject Papal authority already irking him. Though Quin later supported government policy, his diocese’s scarcity of priests, many fleeing, saw external devotion expressions unchanged, with Mass and sacraments administered in secrecy.
A shift occurred with young Edward VI’s ascent, outlawing Mass and renouncing the Eucharist’s real presence. Monasteries and convents were destroyed, clergies murdered, and their lands seized. Despite Irish belief and sentiment, Sir Anthony Saint Leger became lord deputy in 1550, issuing radical change edicts aimed at converting the Irish to Protestantism. Common prayer books spread across every diocese, including Limerick.
Irish resistance took varied forms. As attending Catholic Mass was outlawed, with penalty often death, priests began conducting in secret locations:
“Attending Mass was fatal, yet under Holy See approval, Mass was offered in secluded locations using rocks as altars. Before daybreak, participants reverently proceeded to the venue, partaking in Holy Sacrifice with appreciation. After Mass, they quietly returned home, priests sought refuge in secluded spots. Today, these revered sites have Mass altars where annual Sundays see gatherings for commemorative Mass to honour ancestors, suffering to preserve faith for their descendants.”
Fr. David Wolfe, a Limerick Jesuit acquainted with St. Ignatius of Loyola, notably contested injustices faced by compatriots. While visiting Rome, Wolfe arranged Fr. Thomas Fanning’s 1555 appointment as Limerick’s Dean, freeing the Diocese from leaders crushing native religion and endorsing Protestantism.
On 24 November 1556, Rome, at Queen Mary’s suggestion, appointed Hugh Lacy Bishop of Limerick, sworn to government-required Oath yet loyal to the Pope. Queen Mary (Tudor)’s 1558 death ended her partial success in restoring the ancient faith. Her successor, Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, alongside Mary as half-sisters disliked each other, the former viewing Henry as heretical, the latter a respectable figure. Their opposing religious views—Mary Catholic, Elizabeth Protestant—caused much Irish worry about anticipated treatment under Elizabeth.
Mary’s death and Elizabeth’s reign emboldened Protestants to eliminate Mass. The English Parliament renewed and intensified Henry’s and Edward’s Catholic Church penal laws. A similar Irish parliamentary decree, intended to realign Irish faith with England’s, met strong, hostile opposition, leading to bishop arrests. Though narrowly passed, some noblemen, including the Earl of Desmond and Shane O’Neill, opposed.
Bishop Lacy, one of Parliament’s staunchest opponents on religion, was believed among those arrested. Described to the Queen by the Deputy as a stubborn, disobedient man committing forfeiture-worthy crimes, he lost property and livelihood to Protestant Bishop Casey, though retaining title and spiritual duties until ceasing to be Protestantism’s effective opponent.
Catholic clergy persecution escalated. A notable case was Fr. Teige O’Daly, a Franciscan assigned to Roscrea monastery until attacked and destroyed, with monks scattered and the site plundered. Fleeing to Limerick, seeking passage abroad, O’Daly was arrested wearing his brown Franciscan habit, white girdle, and sandals. Held for weeks, he was offered freedom for Queen’s ecclesiastical supremacy recognition, which he blatantly refused, pledging unwavering Catholic faith adherence regardless of outcome.
Munster President, “Drury,” sentenced him to execution by hanging, drawing, and quartering. On execution morning, many tearful gathered. O’Daly emerged, tied to a horse’s tail, hands bound behind him, dragged through streets to gallows. Rather than pain or sadness, he sang the “Te Deum” to prove his devotion. Hanged, with head severed and body quartered, his remains decayed over gates for months.
Fr. Teige O’Daly’s Askeaton home monastery faced another attack by Sir Henry Malby’s forces, resulting in two friar deaths, Fr. O’Connor, buried within the ruins, and Fr. Geoffrey O’Farrell. This Limerick diocese’ experience reflected occurrences across the nation.
Later Religious Developments
Calvinism made little headway in Germany facing Lutheranism, except in the Palatinate under deeply religious Prince Frederick III who invited two Calvinist teachers to his University at Heidelberg, where their Catechism became celebrated as the Heidelberg Catechism, later accepted as Reformed Church doctrine in multiple European nations, including Germany.
Calvinism’s introduction in France led to a great, ruinous war with Catholics. The French Huguenots suffered severe losses, with thousands butchered. In Scotland, John Knox, who shifted to Protestantism, studied Calvinism at Calvin’s Geneva college. Returning, he joined rebels overtaking St. Andrews Castle, assassinating Cardinal Beaton, the Scottish Catholic Primate. It has been documented that Calvinism rapidly spread in Scotland due to John Knox, whose adaptation of Calvin’s religious doctrines was adopted by Parliament without question. Following Knox’s death, the Scottish church remained steadfast to Calvinistic Presbyterianism.
During this era, significant missionary activities marked the Catholic Church’s global expansion. In 1511, Columbus transported missionaries to America, achieving widespread Central and South American conversions to Catholicism. In 1307, Franciscan Giovanni da Montecorvino led a Peking mission, but his Gospel ambitions were thwarted by China’s hostile Ming Dynasty, alongside Europe’s Black Death outbreak.
Another notable missionary date is 1498, marking the Portuguese arrival in India’s Goa, launching a missionary movement spreading throughout the Far East. A fierce persecution erupted in Japan, whose modest Christian growth was curtailed by murdering thirty-five thousand converts by 1638, forcing survivors to maintain secret beliefs until missionaries returned mid-nineteenth century.
In 1552, Jesuit Francis Xavier undertook a Chinese missionary journey but died on the journey. Another Jesuit mission led by Matteo Ricci arrived in China during 1581, swiftly making progress, imparting scientific knowledge, including maps, clocks, and Christian teachings adapted to Chinese culture, effecting numerous conversions. Unfortunately, Matteo Ricci’s methods were rejected by Pope Clement XI, preventing further growth of Christianity in China.
A similar fate befell Jesuit missionary Robert de Nobili in India, a renowned linguist producing over twenty books in various languages, including catechisms and hymn books. His Philippine Islands success includes a 1595 Manila college founding, with Catholic growth reaching twenty million by the end of the century.
By the end of the Council of Trent, Protestantism had claimed over half of Europe’s population in 1563. By the century’s close, Poland, large German regions, France, and southern Netherlands returned to Catholicism, credited to courageous missionaries and Irish priests, brothers, and sisters who reached the world’s furthest corners, spreading the faith’s Gospel. Though England, Sweden, and Prussia firmly embraced Protestantism, the Catholic Church emerged in the seventeenth century as a revitalised, self-assured, spiritually renewed institution.
This era saw Europe’s religious boundaries solidified, with some regions firmly Protestant while others remained or returned to Catholicism. Missionary activities also established Christianity, especially Catholicism, globally beyond Europe, often facing mixed results and substantial challenges.